Neurons to Genes A Comprehensive Review of Parkinson’s Disease

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an insidious neurodegenerative disease that is marked by loss of dopaminergic cells of the substantia nigra (SN) and aggregation of misfolded a-synuclein proteins. It is characterized by typical motor symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability, along with a wide range of non-motor manifestations including cognitive impairment, autonomic dysfunction, sleep disturbances, and mood disorders.The pathophysiology of PD is multifactorial, as it entails protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and genetics. Although significant advancements have been made in levodopa-based therapies and surgical interventions such as deep brain stimulation, these approaches primarily provide symptomatic relief and do not prevent disease progression. Emerging therapeutic strategies, including gene therapy, RNA-based therapeutics, immunotherapy, and stem cell interventions, are currently under investigation for their potential disease-modifying effects. Furthermore, patient-centered and precision medicine approaches are becoming increasingly important in PD management. This review integrates clinical, molecular, and therapeutic perspectives, with particular emphasis on challenges associated with bench-to-bedside translation. It also highlights the urgent need for reliable biomarkers, early diagnosis, and multidisciplinary disease-modifying strategies for future therapeutic interventions.